Course Design

Estimated time to complete: 90 minutes

Module Learning Objectives

Course Design Defined

Course design is an intentional, reflective process of developing effective learning materials and environments that encourage students to develop their skills and knowledge. In designing a course, we set goals and adopt strategies for students to achieve learning objectives.

Why Course Design?

The aim of course design is to create directed, scaffolded learning experiences in which students engage repeatedly with the course material, each other, and the instructional team (Fink, 2006; Freeman et al., 2011; Wiggins, 2005; Wiggins and McTighe, 2011).

Scientific teachers are "designers:" You select scientific content with purpose, organize it in a way that scaffolds learning, and evaluate how well it worked. You make decisions - before, during, and after the term - that help you achieve your aims and support student learning. As a teacher, scientist, and designer, you hold a number of commitments that inspire and inform how you carry out your course (Flanagan et al., 2005; Flanagan and Nissenbaum, 2014; Belman et al., 2009).

These commitments:

• Shape what you aspire to achieve in your work as a scientific teacher
• Motivate you to pursue your own degree of quality
• Guide you to explore and weigh between design alternatives
• Inform how you engage with your students
• Define how you want students to engage with the content and each other

In this module, you will reflect on your commitments while you apply a course design framework called “backward design”. Other modules provide suggestions for activities, assessments, and other considerations as you plan your course learning experiences.

Effective Design of STEM Courses

Effective design principles incorporate balance and alignment, while focusing on the end product and user experience. Applied to STEM courses, effective design principles focus on learning science and the learners by:

• Setting learning objectives that represent the facets of science
• Aligning activities and assessments with the objectives
• Considering factors that influence the student experience, such as pacing and accessibility

A Framework for Course Design

Understanding by Design® and Backward Design

Understanding by design® is a long-standing, intentional design framework that focuses on student learning and understanding (Wiggins, 2005; Wiggins and McTighe, 2011). It asks instructors to define what learning and understanding mean for their course context (e.g, student preparation, course level, and content) and then design curriculum “backward” from there.

A three-step process known as backward design supports Understanding by Design. It is called “backward” because it starts with the end goals in mind and then designs learning experiences that guide students toward those goals. As such, it shifts the teacher's focus from what they will do, to what they intend the students to learn. In contrast, a “forward” approach focuses on covering content, delivering instruction, and then developing assessments based on what has been taught. Because evaluating what was learned comes last, the “forward” approach may lead to weak alignment between learning goals and assessments, leaving students to guess what is important and where to focus their study efforts.

The process of backward design is meant to be flexible rather than prescriptive. During the course desgin process, you move through the steps iteratively, making sure that the learning objecties are aligned with assessments and learning experiences so that students are supporeed in achiveing the desired outcomes as you plan each course component. Framed within the context of STEM, the process of backward design typically involves three stages:

• Identify desired results. What should students know, understand, and be able to do? Which facets of science should students understand, and to what level of competency? What enduring understandings or transfer of knowledge are desired?

  Action: Establish learning objectives based on the facets of science.

• Determine acceptable evidence. What evidence will demonstrate progress toward understanding those facets of science at those levels of competency? How will student performance be evaluated in fair and consistent ways?

  Action: Create equitable assessments that measure progress toward the objectives.

• Plan learning experiences and instruction. What activities could engage students with the facets of science and scaffold their learning? How will learners be supported as they come to understand important ideas and processes? What activities, sequence, and resources are best suited to accomplish the desired goals?

  Action: Design inclusive learning experiences that support learners in understanding the facets of science.

Backward design is a process that enables us to approach our teaching scientifically. Similar to how we design a research study with identifying a hypothesis and then determining the steps to test it, in backward design we plan our desired results, then intentionally plan the approach we will use to achieve them. It is most successful when we evaluate the extent to which our plan accomplished what was intended.

Course Design in Practice

Step 1: Identify desired results.

Learning goals and objectives are two key components of instructional design that guide the development of curriculum and assessments.

Writing Effective Learning Goals

Learning goals describe broad outcomes at the course-level. An instructor may have only a few learning goals for an entire course. Think about the main ideas listed on your course website or the top of your syllabus—they are probably goals.

Because a goal is not directly measured by a single assessment question, it can use vague, difficult to measure terms such as understand and appreciate, which should be avoided for learning objectives.

To write an effective learning goal, we suggest the following:

• Think about long-term transfer goals. What would you want students to be able to do with the knowledge they gain from the course?
• Consider enduring understanding. What would you want your students to remember or understand 5 years from now?
• Goals can be ambitious and even philosophical. They communicate that "big picture" feeling to the students.
• Write goals in broad terms but with enough specificity to provide purpose and direction for instructional design.

For example:

Course Goals:

• Students will understand the water cycle as a complex process that involves the continuous movement and transformation of water through the environment.
• Students will recognize the importance of the water cycle in sustaining life on earth and the implications of human activity on this process.
• Students will develop critical thinking skills to analyze and evaluate the impact of changes in the water cycle on ecosystems and human societies.
• Students will understand how individuals from different backgrounds contribute to soling water-related challenges in various careers.

Writing Effective Learning Objectives

Learning objectives are more measurable than learning goals and describe specific outcomes at the topic level.

A general suggestion is to have two to five learning objectives per topic, depending on its complexity. Although learning objectives are often content-focused, they can also include gaining competence in a new skill, or shifting beliefs, attitudes, or perspectives. Learning objectives should be designed to be achievable and realistic within a given time frame, but also challenging enough to promote growth and progress.

To write an effective learning objective, we suggest the following:

• Start with an action verb. An effective learning objective should begin with a strong verb that describes the specific competency that students are expected to demonstrate. Examples of commonly used verbs include "identify," "analyze," "describe," "compare," "explain," and "design."
• Be specific. TThe objective should clearly state what the student should be able to do after achieving teh desired learning. Avoid vague or overly general language that could be open to interpretation.
• Be concrete. The objective should be written in a way that allows the student's progress or achievement to be measured directly. Use language that makes clear how knowledge is being assessed.
• Be realistic. The objective should be achievable within the context of the course unit and based on a reasonable level of prior knowledge or skill.
• Align with learning goals. The objective should align with a larger learning goal.
• Be authentic. The skills or ways of thinking should reflect what matters in the discipline and promote the facets of science.

Bloom's Taxonomy (Cognitive Domain)

Bloom’s Taxonomy categorizes several domains of educational goals based on the level of complexity and specificity (Bloom et al., 1964; Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001) and can be helpful in writing learning objectives. The taxonomy of the cognitive domain consists of six levels ranging from lower-order cognitive skills (LOCS) to higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS):

• Remember: Can the learner recall or retain the information? Action verbs: define, duplicate, identify, list, memorize, name, recall, recognize, repeat, state
• Comprehend: Can the learner explain ideas or concepts? Action verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, locate, paraphrase, report, select, summarize, translate
• Apply: Can the learner use information in a new way? Action verbs: choose, demonstrate, dramatize, draw, employ, execute, illustrate, implement, interpret, operate, perform, sketch, solve, use
• Analyze: Can the learner distinguish between different parts? Action verbs: compare, contrast, deconstruct, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, infer, investigate, organize, predict, question, test
• Evaluate: Can the learner justify a stand or decision? Action verbs: appraise, argue, assess, criticize, critique, defend, judge, justify, prioritize, support, value
• Create: Can the learner create a new product or point of view? Action verbs: assemble, build, compose, construct, design, develop, devise, formulate, invent, plan, produce, write

In designing learning objectives, select action verbs that communicate the desired cognitive level. Importantly, students do not necessarily have to complete LOCs before moving to HOCs. In fact, asking questions, making assessments, or proposing hypotheses can encourage a growth mindset and readiness to learn the facts or concepts. For example, sometimes it makes more sense to ask a question or propose a hypothesis before learning the content, which can also activate prior knowledge and metacognition. Including HOCs is also valuable in helping students emulate how scientists think. Scientists don't only remember and understand, after all.

Bloom's Taxonomy (Affective Domain)

Bloom's Taxonomy also includes an affective domain, which encompasses how we process things emotionally when learning. The domain includes outcomes related to beliefs, attitudes, motivations, feelings, and behaviors.

Step 2. Determine acceptable evidence.

Once you have learning objectives that are aligned to learning goals, the next step is to determine what evidence will acceptably demonstrate that students are progressing toward—and eventually succeeding in accomplishing—the desired outcomes. This requires that we design assessments that are aligned to the learning objectives.

Why is this such a critical step? Because assessment drives learning. When students have opportunities to practice the material they are learning, they are better able to diagnose their understanding and can change their study strategies, if necessary. These strategies are effective in improving learning gains (Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012; Sebesta and Bray Speth, 2017). Misalignment between learning objectives and assessments can negatively impact student performance (O'Neill et al., 2010). This creates uncertainty for students about where to focus their study efforts, which is the opposite of an inclusive learning environment.

Imagine studying for an exam by solving problems and designing potential experiments, only to find that the exam is all memorization. A student may rightfully feel frustrated, thinking they "wasted time" studying the wrong material.

Now imagine the opposite scenario, where a student presumes the exam will have lower-order cognitive questions, but the exam has mostly higher-order cognitive questions. The student is unlikely to perform well and will be frustrated that the course materials did not adequately prepare them for the exam.

In both cases, the students’ study strategies are misaligned with the objectives of the exam. Instead, when students have the chance to practice the skills they are expected to learn, and those are the skills on which they are tested, it creates a less frustrating and more equitable learning environment for everyone. It also makes it easier on the instructor to interpret data from the assessment and determine whether to modify their teaching to address where students are struggling.

Step 3. Plan learning experiences and instruction.

Now that learning goals, learning objectives, and assessments have been addressed, it's time to design the activities that will bring the facets of science to life. We will introduce key ideas related to developing activities here and then explore them in more detail in the Learning Experiences module.

What students practice in class and in homework should align with how they are assessed to ensure that they have an opportunity to practice and eventually demonstrate proficiency with the intended learning objectives. For example, if students had never practiced analyzing figures during class or on homework assignments, they would not be prepared to analzye graphs on an exam and the instructor could not conclude how well their curriculum advanced students' ability to analyze graphs based on exam performance. In this case, their exam performance would not fairly measure what they learned in the course, instead measuring their prior knowledge and skills.

Let's look at an example of a learning objective and assessment question:

Learning objective: Students will be able to explain the connections between the various stages of the water cycle.

Assessment question: In what ways does the stage of infiltration rely on the previous stages of the water cycle, like precipitation and surface runoff?

What might be an appropriate activity for students to gain practice toward answering the assessment question? Some options might be:

• Students construct a diagram that shows each stage of the water cycle. They label each stage and explain how water moves through the cycle.
• Students watch a video of someone conducting an soil absorption experiment using sand, gravel, and clay. Students discuss how much water is absorbed from the simulated precipitation and simulated runoff.
• Students design an experiment to measure how much water is absorbed by different soil types.
• Students compare and contrast how the water cycle varies depending on the climate, such as a tropical rainforest versus a desert.

We will practice creating learning experiences, writing assessments, and scaffolding activities in the modules to follow, so hold onto the learning objective(s) you wrote!

Step 4. Check alignment within curriculum and values.

Backward design is an iterative and reflective process. As you plan your course, keep checking how the learning objectives, assessments, and learning experiences relate to one another and make adjustments to better align them. Curriculum alignment is an inclusive learning practice that results in courses that support successful learning for all students. learning objectives, assessemtns, and learning experiencs aach communicate what is important and valued. When these areas work together they:

• Elucidate expectations
• Show a pathway to get there
• Provide assurance when students are on the path
• Provide information to help them change course if they are off the path

Backward design is an iterative process. Keep checking how the objectives, assessments, and learning experiences relate to each other, and adjust as you go along.

Step 5. Incorporate equity and access.

Providing access to resources is fundamental to addressing inequities, because it ensures that course structures, artifacts, and the environment do not preclude anyone from learning. However, the mere existence of a resource does not by itself lead to equitable and inclusive outcomes.

Students with disabilities face many challenges when seeking accommodations in higher education (Gin et al., 2020). An accessible course design reduces the need for accommodation, alleviates the burden and stigma associated with students seeking accommodations, saves time for educators, and diminishes the cost associated with providing individual accommodations. Importantly, accessibility improves educational outcomes for all learners by making sure that educational materials and resources are available and usable by everyone, regardless of their individual needs.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) guides educators to create accessible course materials and flexible and inclusive learning experiences that meet the needs of all learners, regardless of their abilities or background (Kelly et al., 2022).

UDL aims to change the design of the environment rather than to change the learner. By adopting the principles of UDL, an instructor can build an inclusive course from the outset. The UDL guidelines (Kelly et al., 2022) encompass three key principles: providing multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression. Some examples include:

• Physical accessibility: Make physical spaces and materials accessible, such as by providing wheelchair ramps, captioning videos, and offering alternative formats of textbooks.

• Digital accessibility: Design digital content and technologies that are compatible with assistive technologies, such as screen readers and text-to-speech software.

• Social accessibility: Use inclusive language, accommodate different communication styles.

  Future modules will provide several actionable examples to leverage UDL through engagement and expression.

Summary of Course Design

• Backward design is an approach to course or curriculum design that involves starting with the end goals or objectives and then designing assessments and activities that align with those goals.
• Learning goals and learning objectives are the desired results—statements that explain what learners are expected to achieve—but they differ in their level of specificity and scope. Both are informed by enduring understanding and the future ability to use the knowledge.
• Bloom's Taxonomy is a framework for categorizing educational goals and objectives into a hierarchy of six levels, ranging from simple recall of facts to complex, analytical thinking. By using Bloom's Taxonomy to guide learning objectives, educators can design learning experiences that promote deeper understanding and critical thinking.
• Learning objectives, assessments, and learning experiences communicate what is important and valued. Their alignment with each other leads to an inclusive learning environment.
• Course design makes our teaching scientific by leveraging same intentionality and rigor that we apply to our research.